Language as a Key Marker of National Identity in the Works of Ukrainian Cardinal Josyf Slipyj (1892-1984)
In the contemporary world, language remains a focal point in postcolonial studies. For centuries, language has been used as a colonial tool, forcing the colonized people to speak a different language. Throughout history, many empires used language as a tool of colonization to assert control, promote assimilation, and suppress indigenous cultures. In the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union, Russian was imposed as the lingua franca across vast territories with diverse ethnic groups. During the Soviet era, Russian was promoted in education, media, and government, often at the expense of local languages, to unify the empire and consolidate control over satellite states and ethnic minorities. Ukraine, being historically the object of Russian imperialism, is yet to recover from the centuries of linguicide imposed by Moscow.
“I will be as great as my people will be.” [1] With these words, Patriarch Josyf Slipyj addressed the clergy and laity of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church gathered at the Minor Seminary in Rome on February 28, 1965, upon his elevation to cardinal.
Josyf Slipyj was born in Zazdrist, western Ukraine in 1892. He was ordained a priest in 1917 and studied at Lviv, Innsbruck, and Rome. From 1925 to 1939, he served as the Lviv Theological Seminary (Academy from 1928) rector. Consecrated as a bishop in 1939, he became the Greek Catholic Metropolitan Archbishop of Lviv and Halych on the death of Andrey Sheptytsky in November 1944. In April 1945, the Soviet political police arrested him along with four other Greek Catholic bishops. He was tried for treason and sentenced by a military tribunal in May-June 1946, re-sentenced in 1953, and re-arrested and sentenced in 1958-1959, altogether spending close to eighteen years in prisons, forced labor camps, and administrative exile. After lengthy negotiations among US President John F. Kennedy, Pope John XXIII, and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, Metropolitan Josyf was released in late January 1963 but forbidden to return to his faithful in Ukraine. Exiled to Rome, he addressed the Second Vatican Council. He was elevated to Major Archbishop in 1963 and officially named a cardinal in 1965. Josyf Slipyj persistently defended the rights of his persecuted Church and called for its recognition as a patriarchate. He died in Rome on September 7, 1984.
The theme of Cardinal Slipyj’s patriotism is multifaceted, with much yet to explore. The Patriarch’s dedication to the Ukrainian language is little known, but it serves as the bedrock of national consciousness, a bulwark against assimilation, and a unifying force for any nation. The historical practice of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church demonstrates the close connection between people, culture, language, faith, rite, Church, and God. It was within this context that Josyf Slipyj championed language, reminding participants at the Congress of Ukrainian Catholics in Canada on June 27, 1971: “…One language, one Christian faith, one prayer, one Service of God, one rite, one national Ukrainian consciousness, one great love for our princely and Cossack past, one culture, literature and art, one state tradition and customs, consolidated by centuries of history, form a solid foundation for our continued struggle!… one shepherd, one flock. In its unity lies an indomitable strength, assured by the Savior, an immovable force for it was, is, and always will be.” [2]
Patriarch Josyf Slipyj lived through some of the darkest times for the Ukrainian people, marked by brutal occupations under Polish nobles, German Nazis, and Russian Soviets, leaving indelible scars on his soul. His leadership drew from national history, culture, Christian humanism, and a broad philosophical and cultural foundation. Slipyj’s approach to linguistic patriotism and national identity within these realms should be understood.
- Family and School: The Cradle of Language Education
Josyf Slipyj deeply understood the pivotal role of language in preserving the core of Ukrainian national identity, as evidenced by his words: “The native language is an imperishable treasure preserved by our ancestors despite countless prohibitions and persecutions, passed down to us as a legacy.” [5] Throughout Ukrainian history, there have been at least 134 attempts to ban or suppress the language, resulting in various detrimental and, in some cases, unavoidable consequences rooted in feelings of inferiority and national subjugation. Hence, the mechanisms of resistance that safeguarded the Ukrainian language from complete eradication within Ukraine and in diaspora communities are particularly noteworthy.
Josyf Slipyj identified these mechanisms primarily as the Church, the Christian family, and the native school. In his “Testament,” the Patriarch articulated a spiritual and intellectual imperative for Ukrainians worldwide: “The Christian family and the native Ukrainian school are prerequisites for the wholesome upbringing of future generations! Therefore, I command you: revive and preserve them in Ukraine and all settlements of our Ukrainian people! (…) Engrave in your hearts the pure and immaculate name of our Holy Church!” [6]
Thus, these three pillars—family, school, and Church—formed the cradle of national, Christian, and linguistic education for every Ukrainian. Their preservation, both in Ukraine and abroad, guaranteed the survival of the entire nation: “I am immensely pleased that those born in foreign lands cherish their Church, their nation, their native language, and our native rite, thanks to their relatives and teachers. Never forget all you have learned from your parents and spiritual mentors, for they impart to you the cherished treasures of our past, which we struggled to preserve for our people.” [9]
Despite the differing circumstances faced by Josyf Slipyj within Ukraine and in the diaspora, the specters of assimilation and linguistic homogenization threatened both. Therefore, in this triumvirate—family upbringing, education in native schools, and spiritual formation within the Church—the Patriarch saw safeguarding all facets of national identity, including the Ukrainian language.
- Historical and Ecclesiastical Discourse
The review published in the “Myrianyn” [Laity] magazine (XI-XII.1969) lauded Slipyj’s indisputable contributions to preserving crucial aspects of Ukrainian identity, placing him alongside Ivan Kotliarevsky, Markiyan Shashkevych, Taras Shevchenko, and Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky—individuals who “bravely defended their national cause, rousing it from its slumber and charting the course for national and religious revival.” [26]
It was also pertinent for the editorial board to acknowledge the undeniable contribution of Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytskyi (18956-1944) to the Ukrainian cause. He defined the nation’s genetic code: “What unites a group of people as a nation? Above all, language.”
- Tutorial and Educational Discourse in the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church: A Historical Perspective
The Soviet regime’s imposition in Western Ukraine marked a pivotal juncture in the erosion of Ukrainian identity. Faced with emigration or clandestine adherence to their national and religious beliefs, many Ukrainians opted for the former, dispersing to the Western world. Meanwhile, Metropolitan Josyf Slipyj endured 18 years of imprisonment, during which educational institutions pivotal for Ukrainian intellectual life were systematically dismantled. The Soviet regime enforced atheism, denationalization, and Russification, prompting Slipyj to decry the deliberate assimilation efforts that scattered Ukrainian youth and intellectuals in exile and prisons.
Reflecting on these challenges, Jaroslav Pelikan noted parallels with other ethnic groups’ histories [32]. He cited Gerald Shaughnessy’s sociological study, “Did the Immigrant Keep His Faith?”, which revealed generational shifts among Roman Catholic immigrants in America. These insights underscored the dangers of cultural and religious assimilation faced by the Ukrainian diaspora, exacerbated by intermarriage and migration across different national communities.
Metropolitan Josyf Slipyj’s response was to establish Ukrainian education and culture centers, envisioning these as bulwarks against assimilation. His initiative culminated in the founding of the Ukrainian Catholic University in Rome in 1963, aimed at nurturing Ukrainian intellectualism and fostering national consciousness among students. Emphasizing the pivotal role of the clergy, Slipyj sought to cultivate a cadre of Ukrainian-speaking priests who would uphold the Ukrainian identity in diaspora communities. [33]
Beyond clergy formation, Slipyj championed the development of a nationally conscious secular intelligentsia, advocating for a blend of religious and patriotic education to counteract cultural erasure. The university’s faculty, comprising renowned linguists and scholars like Yaroslav Rudnytskyi, Oleksa Horbach, Mykhajlo Sonevytskyi, and Vasyl Lev, laid the linguistic groundwork for Ukrainian studies, publishing seminal works and dictionaries crucial for preserving the Ukrainian language and culture.
Despite geographical challenges, including political isolation and societal assimilation pressures, Slipyj expanded the university’s outreach, establishing branches in Argentina, North America, and Europe. These branches aimed to educate future leaders committed to Ukrainian heritage and Church traditions, countering the pervasive linguistic and cultural assimilation trend.
- Liturgical and Theological Discourse
The language issue became intensely critical for Patriarch Slipyj upon his return to the free world, particularly within liturgical and theological discussions. During his imprisonment, the hierarchy of the UGCC, without centralized leadership and dispersed across continents, gradually lost unity, consensus, and a clear purpose within the Church. This internal discord made it challenging to resist the pressures of assimilation from foreign environments. This trend was evident in various experiments with the church calendar, liturgical changes, and the use of different languages—innovations sometimes unilaterally adopted by individual UGCC eparchies. Slipyj staunchly opposed the introduction of foreign languages into religious services, viewing language as integral to preserving national and ecclesiastical identity. In a letter to Dr. Romana Navrotska of St. Sophia Religious Association of Ukrainian Catholics, Inc., he expressed concern that English-language services could endanger Ukrainian traditions and weaken the Ukrainian Church’s distinct identity. [41] Similarly, in correspondence with Fr. Ivan Tataryn, Slipyj viewed translations into other languages as detrimental, reinforcing assimilation and undermining the Ukrainian Catholic Church’s Byzantine heritage. [42] Patriarch Josyf Slipyj urged measures to maintain the Ukrainian language in the liturgy to safeguard identity, particularly in multilingual communities in Canada, where the idea of maintaining diverse languages was promoted. His efforts culminated in adopting Ukrainian language liturgies and theological teachings, cementing the Ukrainian Catholic Church’s role as a bastion of Ukrainian cultural continuity.
CONCLUSION
Preserving linguistic identity was a national, moral, and spiritual imperative for Patriarch Josyf Slipyj and the global Ukrainian community. His words, delivered in 1975 in Rome, remain relevant today, especially amidst the current Russian war and genocide of the Ukrainian people.
He urged, “Ukrainian people, rediscover yourselves! Shed the ancient ailments of discord, servitude, flattery, and humiliation still afflict our national and Church leadership. Cast off the burdens of the past and stand strong in Ukraine and beyond its borders! Let the world marvel at your strength, profound faith, beauty, and rich culture! It is time to assert yourselves politically, scientifically, artistically, and culturally! (…) Be unified and steadfast and forsake foreign influences. You have already carved out your place through your Ukrainian Church, organizations, political maturity, culture, sciences, literature, and arts!” [43]
